Direct and indirect effects of food, fear and management on crop damage by ungulates

Abstract Foraging on crops by wild ungulates may create human–wildlife conflicts through reducing crop production. Ungulates interact with and within complex socio‐ecological systems, making the reduction of damage a challenging task. Aside from ungulate densities, is influenced different drivers affecting foraging behaviour: food availability quality in landscape (i.e. foodscape) as well fear hunting scaring actions fear) together affect degree via both direct indirect effects. A better understanding individual effects these potential behind needed, an appreciation whether are dependent density. We investigated this applying path analysis to test links between density, foodscape, human management goals oats grass, respectively. Our results suggest that type major driver damage, more than leys, implying decisions changing type) influence level damage. found foodscape fear, amount forage produced agricultural actions. Additionally, we supplementary feeding local densities area. highlight importance including multiple levels when assessing managed landscapes. studies using scales needed order tackle issues, such other conflicts.